The Prehistory of Greece: c. 10,000 — c. 1550 BC

The Neolithic Age

The 'Neolithic Revolution' took place around 10,000 BC probably as a result of the herding of horned beasts leading to their full domestication, then through the need to secure fodder to agriculture. By 6,500 BC farming developed in the Bosporus, spreading to Thessalonika and Macedonia, and then south into Greece. The earliest sight in Greece is in Thessaly at Sesklo near the Bay of Volos. These Neolithic farmers learnt how to make pottery, though without the wheel. They built cabins of brick on stone foundations. Their art comprises little clay figurines with exaggerated plumpness. Five such statuettes have been found at Nea Nikomedeia in a building that was possibly a shrine. It seems they worshipped the supernatural power that could give or withhold fertility as a goddess. They probably used a rotation method of cultivation — rotating grain crops with peas and beans. Their stone cabins evolved into mounds or “tells“ which is similar to Western Asia.

Crete was colonised by settlers from the Levant who brought with them pigs, sheep and cattle. They also made female figurines. Their dwellings were without fortifications and they usually inhabited inland caves occupying principally the western side of the island. The earliest settlement at Knosós, by radioactive carbon dating, is dated c. 5000 BC.

The Early Helladic Period

The Cyclades were settled around 4000 BC, and by 2750 BC the inhabitants were using copper daggers and spearheads, the first in Greece to do so. The beginning of the Aegean Bronze Age is usually dated around 2600 BC. The peoples of the Cyclades also made female statuettes in a geometric style out of marble found on the islands. They started to form small towns. On their pottery they sometimes depict men in boats. They buried their dead in chamber tombs cut out of rock or built from stone. The dead were frequently buried with weapons. They traded with Crete and the Greek mainland. Their culture fused with that of the other peoples and is known as Early Helladic. It is likely that the knowledge of copper working came from Mesopotamia, where by 3000 BC cities and governments had formed and wars between city states created a demand for copper to be alloyed into bronze. Around 2900 BC the Menes from Upper Egypt conquered the Delta and founded the First Dynasty. At the same time settlers from the Cyclades seem to have migrated as far west as Spain and settlements have been found in Almeria in Iberia that follow the pattern of town planning in the Cyclades.

The first fortress at Troy (Troy I) was built around this time — it started as a Neolithic settlement situated in the plain near the river Scamander. A fortress on the hill of Hisarlik was subsequently built in the early copper age, and later excavated by Heinrich Schiliemann. The fortress is surrounded by a stone wall about 100 metres in diameter. The most elaborate buildings, probably the dwelling of the ruler, were built on stone foundations with brick walls. One of these exhibits the structure of a hall — the megaron that was later to become prominent in Greece. Copper was used and polished black pottery was made. It is likely gold and silver were used for drinking vessels for the chiefs. Trojan settlements in Lesbos and Lemnos were founded.

There was another influx of settlers around 2500 BC, though not in large numbers and these intermarried with the existing inhabitants. The “aboriginals“ were probably black-haired Mediterranean types. New settlements were founded in Argolis, including Tiryns, Mycenae and Lerna. The immigrants settled in northern Greece too, and here there is evidence of some violence. The Thessalian Sesklo settlement at Servia on the Haliakmon was destroyed by fire around 2500 BC and the subsequent pottery is polished black rather than red, exhibiting incised or painted geometric decorations and spirals. Clay phalli have been discovered. War brought the dominance of the male sex. Villages in Thessaly started to be walled. A typical site can be found at Dhimini. The megaron style of building, found at Troy, begins to make its appearance.

Minoan Civilisation

There appears to have been an influx of immigrants to Crete around 2300 BC probably from Libya; they were assimilated into the Cretan culture which has been called “Minoan“ after the legendary king of Crete, Minos. It is, however, probably a misleading term since the period is so extensive.

The Early Minoan period is subdivided into three, I, II and III. However, the Early Minoan I was probably very similar to the Late Neolithic and it is not know for certain that any copper tools were used at this time. However, vase painting exhibits new developments and stone was also used for making figurines; house-building becomes more ambitious; also sites near the sea were occupied.

Early Minoan II and III lasted from c 2300 to c 1950 BC. There was trade with Egypt, with imports from there of faience (blue paste) and ivory. Gold was used for jewelry and vases cut in local marble and other stones. At Vasiliki in eastern Crete a large L-shaped house has been excavated. Society appears to be becoming stratified. Copper is more common, though not alloyed very often with tin. Rooms were painted with frescos. Pottery was decorated with abstract forms, but there was also some experimentation — for example, a pot fashioned in the likeness of a bird.

Around 2000 BC there was an “urban revolution“ to use the terminology of Childe. Knosós became the political centre of Crete together with its port at Amnisos. Other towns were situated at Mallia (east) and Phaistós (south coast). Each town had a palace. Houses were densely packed. Large rooms do not appear to have existed, but the buildings were probably two storey and the larger rooms may have been found on the upper storey.

The Greek migration

The Greek language was not spoken in the Aegean prior to 1950 BC. Most pre-Hellenic place-names are related to languages from Asia Minor. Classical Greek writers reckoned that prior to the Hellenes the mainland was occupied by people from Karia (from south-west Asia) called the Leleges. Northern parts were occupied by the Pelasgoi. These speculations are supported by the evidence of archaeology. Greek place-names, many of which end in —sos, -ssos, -ttos seem to derive from Karian place names ending in —sa and —nda. These include Knosós, Amnisós, Parnasós, Hymettós, Lárisa, Halikarnasós, Corinth, Tiryns (Tiryntha), Olynthos, Mont Kynthos (in Delos), Londos (in Rhodes), Alabanda, Labraunda, Argos (meaning plain by the sea). The ending —ene is seen in the names of Messene, Athenai, Mytilene, Priene. The —s and —nth terminations also appear in some Greek common nouns comprising either country words such as the names of plants, or words related to civilisation. Examples are hyancith, narcissus, mintha (mint), terebinth, absinthe, acanthus, cypress, plinth, th´lassa (sea), nesós (island), asaminthos (bath).

Some scholars see a relationship between early Greek and proto-Luvian and proto-Hittite. The proto-Luvians may have sacked Troy I in the second half of the third millennium. This idea is supported by the myth of the migration of Pelops the Phrygian to mainland Greece. However, it is not likely that the main language of Greece during this period was a form of Luvian

Thus it is likely that the early Greek invaders were an uncivilized people coming into contact with a more advanced culture. The Greek language is part of the Indo-European family of languages. They are regarded as a branch of the “Aryan“ people, the same barbarians that invaded India c. 1600 BC. The homeland of these people has not been identified with certainty, though it is probable that they originated from migrations of Indo-European speakers from north of the Black Sea. By the third millennium these barbarians had domesticated cattle and horses and made pottery using the wheel; a warlike society had evolved and men had become dominant. Archaeological evidence suggests that these northerners entered Macedonia c. 2000 BC from whence they moved into Thessaly. It is likely that bands of marauders and migrants were constantly infiltrating the Aegean seeking settlements.

Their houses were generally constructed on a rectangular plan with an open porch (the megaron structure). Cities were sometimes built with defensive walls, and sometimes not. The megaron structure has been associated by some archaeologists with the early Greek migrants, but it is not a construction typical of other Indo-Europeans and it may have been an indigenous development. It appeared in Thessaly during the Early and Middle Helladic period and in Anatolia after c. 3700 BC. Burials were in cist graves (pithoi) — the figure being placed in either a crouching or extended position.

Thus the Middle Bronze Age (“Middle Helladic“) appears to begin with an invasion. There is evidence of the burning of towns in eastern Greece and, for example, towards the end of the Early Helladic period Korakou near Corinth was destroyed by fire. The painted pottery of the Early Helladic ceases, and was replaced by the grey ware that has been associated with the invaders. However, whilst this Grey “Minyan“ ware used to be associated with these intruders, this association is now no longer accepted by all. This kind of pottery evolved into Middle Helladic ware, which is technically very accomplished and is now called “Minyan“ though this is an unfortunate misappelation since there is no necessary link between it and Crete. This pottery spread to the whole of Greece, including the Peloponnese, where it is sometimes yellow. The various types of pottery of this period are Grey Minyan, Argive black Minyan, yellow Minyan and early Mycenean. Archaeological sites include: (1)Troy II, (2) Eutresis, Orchomenos in Boetia; (3) Krisa in Phokis; (4) Themes; (5) Lefkandi in Euboea; (6) Aghios Kosmos in Attica; (7) Aegina; (8) Lerna; (9) Tiryns

To some extent the early Greeks (Hellenes) may not have spread by the use of violence; in some cases they were probably invited in by local chiefs. This was the view of Thucydides. Usually an alliance was celebrated by the marriage of the chieftain to the king's daughter. The cultures of the Aegean were probably matrilineal. The Greek legends show evidence of this — for example, Menelaus became king of Sparta through his marriage to Helen, even though her two brothers were still alive.

Whether they came by violence or by invitation from 1550 BC the Aryan language, with its elaborate tense-system, began to predominate; it was probably the language of the chiefs and the ruling class, and Greek speaking chiefdoms were established throughout Greece. Tiryns and Mycenae become politically dominant centres, though being situated so close together they coexisted in a state of tension.

The Aegean Bronze Age: The Minoan Civilisation: c. 2000 — 1550 BC

The Middle Minoan period is dated c 1950 — 1550 BC. During this period engineered roads were built, particularly between Knosós and Phaistós. Police posts were stationed along these are intervals. Hieroglyphic writing, probably imported from Egypt, was used from which the simpler form, Minoan Linear A, was subsequently developed. Bronze was used. Daggers became longer and evolved into swords; however, they seem to have been rare and towns remained unfortified. Whilst palaces have narrow entrances, war between towns seems not to have occurred. Women had high social status and the chief deity was a mother goddess; priest-kings were possibly the consorts of divine queens. There was taxation, particularly in oil and huge store-rooms for oil have been found at Knosós. Middle Minoan miniature frescoes often show people gathering at a spectacle. Bull-baiting or bull-vaulting was practised as part of religious ceremonies. Men are usually depicted in red, women in white; women wear elaborate dresses with flounced skirts and puffed sleeves; their breasts are visible.

During the heyday of the Cretan civilisation the culture of the Cyclades declined. Melos remained relatively important. There was slow development on the mainland, though a substantial house at Lerna, built before 2000 BC, has been discovered. It seems the eastern side of the mainland was more prosperous than the western side.

The period 1950 to 1400 BC was the golden age of Minoan Crete. However, during this time Knosós was twice destroyed by earthquakes in c. 1730 and 1570 BC. Knosós stands on a geological fault. Nonetheless, these natural disasters did not impede the progress of Knosós. Houses were two-storey and flat-roofed, and the size of the town was comparable to those in Egypt; combined with its harbour at Amnisos the population was likely to have been around 100,000. The economy was based on agriculture and trade. Crete traded with Egypt and Syria; for example, metal vases of the Middle Minoan period have been found in Egypt and can be dated to the reign of Amenemhat II, 1929 — 1895 BC. In the West Crete also traded with Ischai on the Bay of Naples and with the Lipari islands. They may also have traded with Britain. However, their main trade was with the Greek mainland where Mycenae acted as the entrepot. Homer tells of a great king Minos of Knosós who was highly respected and was said to converse directly with Zeus. Homer places him two generations before Troy — around 1250 BC; but if the figure is historic it is more likely to be associated with the heyday of Minoan Crete, c. 1400 BC. There are also numerous place names around the Aegean called “Minos“ indicative that Crete at that time was also a naval power. In the opinion of Evans, Minos was a pre-Hellenic Cretan, that is, non-Greek.

Around 1600 BC the island of Thera was subject to a violent volcanic eruption, estimated to be the equivalent of more than thirty hydrogen bombs. The island was fragmented and the remains now form the five small Greek islands known as the Santorini, the largest of which is modern Thera. According to the work of Professor Marinatos prior to the explosion Thera had a thriving Bronze Age culture and was closely linked to Minoan Crete. It is estimated that up to twenty centimetres of ash fell on Crete. However, Marinatos's conclusion that the eruption was responsible for the destruction of Crete is not supported, since evidently Cretan society continued to thrive after it, and the destruction of Knosós is dated c. 1400 BC, some 250 years later. Recent research indicates that up to 60 cubic km of magma was ejected, making it the second largest volcanic eruption in human history (the first being, Sunbawa, Indonesia, 1815 — at 100 cubic km; Krakatoa, 1883 ejected 25 cubic km of molten lava). The area of the Aegean would have been plunged into total darkness during the ash fallout (a region of 300,000 square km.) and the Tsunami would have devastated Aegean ports. Debris from the explosion has been found in Crete and Western Turkey. The seabed surrounding Thera is covered with 80 metres of pumice in a 20 — 30 km radius.

Crete and Mycenae

As a result of its trade with Crete, Mycenae became very rich, as evidenced by the treasures that were buried with their dead, including gold, silver and electrum ornaments, silver and bronze jugs and vases, swords, daggers made from bronze, gold and ivory. Many electrum death masks have been discovered. The influence of Crete in the styles can be observed. Rooms in palaces were probably decorated with frescoes possibly by artists imported from Crete. Cups are decorated with scenes of bull-hunts. The Mycenaean kings were over six feet tall and wore beards and moustaches in contrast to the clean-shaven Minoans. They liked also amber imported from the north, and used horse-drawn chariots in war, which were only introduced to Crete at a later date. Their shaft-graves depict relief scenes of war, which was not known in Crete.

The amber route ran through central Europe, and along it arose some more advanced barbarian cultures each lead by a war-chief. It is possible that these cultures imported artifacts from Mycenae — for example a bronze helmet from Brandenburg looks like a Mycenaean design. Egyptian blue faience has been discovered as far afield as Wessex. The Mycenaean emblem of an axe and dagger has been found carved into one of the Stonehenge stones, though it is now disputed whether this was carved directly as a result of contact with Mycenae.

It is likely that Mycenae and Crete enjoyed close diplomatic and trade relations. The settlement at Melos (called Plylakopi III) shows Cretan and mainland influences and was probably an important trading post between Mycenae and Crete

The Religion of Minoan Crete

It is likely that there was a colossal statue of the great Mother at the palace of Knosós made of painted wood — bronze locks of hair have been discovered there together with burnt wood. The hall in which it stood was probably decorated with frescoes celebrating the bull-leaping ritual. Cretan religious symbols included bulls' horns and the double-axe. The term labrys means “axe“. Later the sanctuary of a war god at Karia was called the Labraunda. It is possible that the term labyrinth was originally the name of the palace at Knosós and means “Place of the Double Axe“. The palace had an elaborate drainage system, and a vast complex of rooms connected by corridors, light-wells and internal rooms. The inhabitants enjoyed great luxury. The main rooms were probably situated on the upper storey and were served by grand staircases. One particularly sumptuous suite of rooms, nicknamed the “Queen's Megaron“ survives. It has frescoes decorated with blue dolphins and fish as well as images of probably dancing girls. It has a private bathroom and a flushable toilet. Clay pipes were used to bring in water and gullies carried rain-water away. The ladies wore flounced skirts, puffed sleeves and were open bosomed. The men wore loin-cloths only and a cloak in winter with a tight belt and boots.

The Mycenaeans derived from northern herdsmen and their society was originally patriarchal. After their arrival in mainland Greece they assimilated a number of the local gods and the result was the Olympian pantheon. The religion of the original inhabitants continued to survive — it celebrated fertility — most notably celebrated at Eleusis in Attica, which was dedicated to the cult of Demeter. An ivory group has been found at Mycenae and this probably represents the divine triad of the Mother, Daughter and Daughter's Son. The Cretans adopted the name Zeus and applied it to their chief male deity, who was also a fertility god, who like Adonis died at some point in the year.

The Linear B Tablets of Knosós

During the Middle Minoan period the Cretans used a syllabic form of writing known as Linear A. During the Late Minoan period this gives way to Linear B., which has been “deciphered“ by the scholar Michael Ventris and has been shown to be a form of Greek. However, the conclusion is not wholly indisputable since the undeciphered language is not a good fit with Greek, and neither with Minoan. Nonetheless, the general opinion is that Linear B represents a form of Greek. The tablets cannot be dated with certainty either. Evans placed them before 1400 BC, but more recently Linear B tablets have been discovered at Pylos, and these can be dated to 1200 BC. They are also identical in respect of script and spelling to those from Knosós, arguing for a coterminous date. However, the linear B tablets at both Knosós and Pylos survived because they were hard baked in an intense fire. There was a fire at Knosós around 1400 BC, so the date of the early c14th is the most likely.

Relations between the mainland and Crete

The conclusion appears to be that from c.1950 BC onwards there was a steady influx of Greek speaking people into mainland Greece. At that time, they came into contact with the Minoan culture of Crete as well as the original inhabitants of the mainland. The resultant culture on the mainland was something of a compromise. The Greek language was adopted, though some pre-Greek words were retained and most of the ancient cities retained their pre-Greek names. The Greeks became overlords. Whilst the Greeks were originally a pastoral community with a patriarchal order of society, it seems that in some cases at least the Cretan form of matriarchal society was adopted on the mainland. Crete continued to enjoy pre-eminence in the region and retained its religion based on worship of the Great Mother. The Greeks themselves underwent a religious transformation resulting in the Olympian pantheon representing both male and female gods. The worship of the Great Mother continued to exert a strong influence on the peasant farmers of Greece, who were probably of non-Greek ethnic origin, and were closely concerned with the land and fertility, which was the province of the Great Mother. The Mycenaeans and Crete traded extensively with each other, with Melos as an important port between them. Crete reached an apogee of wealth and power, but some time after 1400 BC Greek replaces the non-Greek language in Crete, indicative of some kind of political development in Crete — possibly Greeks have become dominant in Crete. A.J.B. Wace has provided evidence that the Greek “heroes“ from the mainland also reached Crete and may have taken over the government there.