Mycenae and the Heroic Age: c. 1550 — 1125 BC

The late Bronze Age

In Greece the late Bronze Age is also called the late Helladic Age, and is subdivided by archaeologists into three phases:

Late Helladic I		1550 — 1450 BC
Late Helladic II		1450 — 1375 BC
Late Helladic III		1375 — c.1125 BC

The Late Helladic III period is also subdivided

A		1375 — 1300 BC
B		1300 — 1225 BC
C		1225 — 1125 BC

The fall of Knosós

Until 1400 BC Minoan Crete was the dominant power in the Greek sphere with a prosperous economy based on agriculture and trade. In the East Crete traded with Egypt and Syria. In the West Crete also traded with Ischai on the Bay of Naples and with the Lipari islands. Crete may also have traded with Britain. However, the main trade was with the Greek mainland where Mycenae acted as the entrepot.

Homer tells of a great king Minos of Knosós who was highly respected and was said to converse directly with Zeus. Homer places him two generations before Troy — around 1250 BC; but if the figure is historic, it is more likely to be associated with the heyday of Minoan Crete, c. 1400 BC. There are also numerous place names around the Aegean called “Minos” indicative that Crete at that time was also a naval power. In the opinion of Evans, Minos was a pre-Hellenic Cretan, that is, non-Greek. Evans also proposed the theory that Crete exercised suzerainty over mainland Greece. According to Greek legend Minos of Crete destroyed Nisa (situated near where Megara was later founded) and forced the Athenians to pay a tribute of youths and maidens to be fed to the Minotaur (meaning , “Bull of Minos”). Greek scholars later rationalised the myth of Theseus into a war of independence of Athens from Crete. According to Herodotus Minos was killed leading an expedition against Sicily.

Around 1400 BC Cretan trade with Syria wilted and there are signs that there was a greater emphasis on defence — with greater production of helmets, spears and swords. During the late Minoan period horses used for war-chariots were introduced. Art forms developed traits that some would call “decadent” — for example, decorative plant-ornaments on vases which have also developed spurious knobs. A particularly “rococo” style is found only at Knosós during the Late Minoan II period (c. 1450- 1400 BC). One fresco showing a captain leading a group of black spearmen suggests that Crete was importing mercenaries at this time. However, Knosós still remained unfortified and was engaged in colonising Kythera, Miletos and Rhodes.

Minoan culture suffered a severe setback around 1400 BC, when evidence suggests that all palaces in Crete were destroyed. According the Evans the archaeological evidence points to another earthquake destroying the palace of Knosós, which was followed by a revolution. The palace was not only burnt but also looted. The fire at Knosós is dated c.1400 BC, and it is after this Minoan culture is in sharp decline.

It seems that prior to 1400 BC Crete was taken over by Greek speaking people, probably as a result of an invasion from the mainland. One part of the evidence for this thesis concerns the Linear A and Linear B tablets. During the Middle Minoan period the Cretans used a syllabic form of writing known as Linear A. During the Late Minoan period this gives way to Linear B., which appears to be a form of Greek, arguing in favour of the theory that Mycenaean Greeks conquered Crete prior to the crisis around 1400 BC. After 1400 BC there was some reconstruction in Crete, by then certainly under Greek lords, though the Minoan religion survived to some extent.

Mycenae

The Mycenean period runs parallel to that of Late Minoan Crete. There was a close connection with Crete as indicated by pottery, and Melos was the meeting point between Crete and the mainland. Mycenean power reached its apogee in the 14th century BC, and it is possible that Mycenaeans took over Cretan settlements at that time. After the fall of Knosós, Mycenae developed direct trade and diplomatic connections with Egypt — probably exchanging embassies with Amenhotep III (c. 1411 — 1375 BC) and his son Amenhotep IV (1375 — 1360 BC, otherwise known as Ikhnaton). The Mycenaeans traded with Troy VI. The catastrophe at Knosós probably occurred around 1400 BC or soon after it.

Mycenaean palace architecture was centred on a large hall or megaron which had a porch with pillars and a central hearth. A bathroom would be situated near the front door. However, the megarons of this time do not match those of Knosós for size and splendour. Nonetheless, the size of the 'beehive' tombs that were cut into a hillside in which kings were buried did increase. A particularly magnificent example exists at Mycenae probably built c. 1330 BC. It has a dome 12 metres high and the lintel stone over the door is estimated to weigh 100 tons. It has been called the Treasury of Atreus, though it was not a treasury but a tomb that was looted in early Greek times. It has also been called the Tomb of Agamemnon, though this is without basis.

Homer's list of the contingents at Troy has been supported by archaeology — every site he mentions has yielded Mycenaean remains. Archaeology also supports the images depicted by Homer of Mycenaean culture — with the porched “halls” and chariots. Both long leather shields and the bronze round shield appear to have been use around 1250 BC, which is also consistent with Homer's account.

However, Homer's account of the burial practices of the Mycenaeans is not supported by archaeology. The Mycenaeans buried their dead along with grave-goods, but Homer describes cremation, a practice only introduced into Greece after the fall of Mycenae. Thus it is likely that Homer's story exhibits accretions from later customs. Homer also refers only once to the practice of letter writing in connection with a story of Bellerophon in which the letter, on a stone tablet, is essential to the plot, since it contains the message, “Please execute the bearer”.

The shaft graves at Mycenae are impressive and suggest that the city was wealthy and exerting an increased influence. The graves also show a Cretan influence. 'Royal' families were buried in the shaft graves, whilst commoners were buried in cist graves. There are large tholos tombs at Mycenae dating from c.1510 BC, and they include the Treasury of Atreus. The tholos structure may have been derived from Crete. Other similar tholoi may be found at (1) Prosymna (near Mycenae), (2) Dendra, (3) Orchomenos in Boetia, known as the Treasury of Minyas, (4) Vapheio in Lakonia, (5) Persisteria, (6) Routsi, (7) Volos, (8) Thorikos and Menidhi in Attica.

There were chamber tombs for the “middle classes” at Mycenae. The burial remains suggest wide trade connections. Imports include gold, copper from Cyprus, tin (origin not known), ivory from Egypt or the Eastern Mediterranean, bored beads and amber. An important series of houses surround the citadel of Mycenae. Wall decorations (of which only fragments survive) suggest Cretan influence, though they are more formal and stylised. The religious significance of surviving works of art is not known. Frescoes at Mycenae include creatures with strange crocodile heads. Some of the more ordinary objects show a religious affinity with Crete. One motif found in Crete and on mainland Greece is called the Mistress of Animals - it comprises a central female figure flanked by two lions. It suggests that there was a female deity that was common to both Mycenae and Crete. There are cave and hilltop sanctuaries, and there is the general impression of considerable religious organisation with culture strongly influenced by Crete.

There are other sites that exhibit Mycenaean influence at Tiryns, Athens, Thebes, Volos, Pylos (the palace of Ano Englianos). There is a tholos but no palace at Sparta. There are massive buildings and fortifications at Mycenae, Tiryns and Athens. The buildings at Tiryns exhibit three distinct periods. There is also evidence that fortifications at Tiryns were modified by the Mycenaeans.. There are settlements at Olympia and Delphi. Linear B tablets have been found at Pylos. These deal only with day-to-day administration and commercial organisation, but confirm the view that Greece in the Late Bronze Age was a well-developed region with good communications and many settlements. There is a very well preserved palace site at Pylos, the main part of which dates from c. 1300 — 1200 BC. There appear to have been Greek colonies in southern Sicily and the 'heel' of Italy — Greek style pottery has, for example, been discovered in these regions as well as doomed tombs near Syracuse and Agrigento resembling those of Greek mainland chieftains.

Cyprus

After the fall of Knosós the island of Cyprus began to prosper, developing a mature Mycenaean culture. It appears to have been colonised by Greeks. There were strong trade connections between Mycenae and Cyprus. It is likely that Cyprus imported pottery from Mycenae. Trade connections extended into Asia Minor. Greek merchants had residences in the Syrian city of Ugarit (Ras Shamra). One piece of evidence for this found at Ugarit is an ivory lid with a goddess (or female figure) flanked by goats and wearing a Mycenaean looking skirt.

Decline of Mycenae

After 1300 BC Mycenaean civilization declined. It appears that piracy in the Mediterranean caused a general decline in trade and exports of Mycenaean pottery to Lipari, Ischia and Sicily cease. After 1300 the quality of pottery work in Mycenae deteriorated; Cyprus developed its own style and trade as a whole declined, thought the accumulated capital remained vast.

There is a reference to Mycenaean Greece in the archives of the Hittite capital, Khattu-sas, whic his near Boghazkeui in Turkey. It refers to a kingdom in the west called the kingdom of Ahhiawa, whose earlier name was Ahhaïwa (i.e the Achaioi), which is connected with the sea. A certain Piyamaradus is accused of piracy around the region of Millawanda or Milawata (Miletos) and the Hittite king Mursil (or Mutallu, c 1334 — c 1282) is requesting his extradition. The Hittite Empire was destroyed by raids from land and sea in 1191 BC. The region was later occupied by Phrygians from the Balkans. The Hittite culture survived only in parts of Syria. There are Egyptian records that also tally with the names recorded in Homer. The Pharoah Rameses II fought a battle with the Hittites, who were supported by the Dardanoi and Kilikes, both peoples listed as allies of Troy in Homer.

It seems that the Achaeans resorted to war as a means of sustaining their economies. Hittite records indicated that c 1230 BC Attarissiyas (or Attarsiyas), meaning “a man of Ahhia” attacked Karia with 100 chariots and infantry and drove out Wadduwattas (Adyattes) who went to the Hittite king. Later Wadduwattas joined Attarissiyas in attacking Alasiya. The archaeological record shows that a further wave of Mycenaean raiders attacked and overran Cyprus and the plain of Tarsus also around 1230 BC.

Egyptian records indicate that in 1221 BC various peoples of the sea in league with the Libyans attempted to invade Egypt. Peoples mentioned are K-W-SH, possibly “Akaiwasha”, and other vocalised forms that could represent the Lykians and possibly the Hittites, Taroisans or Trojans. The attempted invasion met with defeat — the Egyptians archery dealt with them, and Egyptian records count 6,500 Libyans and 2,500 sea-raiders dead. However, from the records it appears that the people of the K-W-SH were circumcised, which does not fit well with the theory that they were Achaioi. The origin of the attackers cannot be settled by the archaeological record, nor can the question of where they eventually settled.

There was another attempted invasion of Egypt from Libya supported by sea-raiders in 1190 BC. Ramases III repulsed an advanced guard and then defeated the main armies at land and at sea. Once again, Egyptian archery proved to be most effective defence. The Egyptians employed mercenaries called the Shardana, who are also identified as part of the sea-peoples. It is possible that these people came from Sardinia. Among the sea people are also listed the D-n-y-n, possibly the Danaoi, another name used in Homer for the Achaioi. Also included at the P-l-s-t, the Philistines, who it has been argued were originally Mycenaean Greeks. After these sea-raids records of contact between the Aegean and the east come to an end; Mycenae declines.

The wars with Thebes and Troy

It is now generally accepted that the sagas are based to some extent on historical events. However, the “Troy” that has been excavated may not have been the Troy of Homer, and it is still possible to maintain that the whole saga of Troy is a romantic myth. The Troy that has been excavated is also not in a particularly important geographical position. Nonetheless, Troy VII a 1 appears to have been destroyed by war and fire during C12th BC, making it the most likely candidate for Homer's Troy. There was some renewed settlement at Troy VII a 2.

Greek scholars placed the fall of Troy from 1334 to 1127 BC, with 1183 BC as the most popular choice. However, this may be a matter of a lucky guess. The recorded list of the kings at Sparta seems to be reliable to the C9th BC. However, the reigns of the earlier kings (the Heracleids) appear to be less reliable and exaggerated in length. Nonetheless, it seems that the events of Troy and Thebes did occur during the period when Mycenae was the hegemon of mainland Greece, and Greek tradition states that it was in the second generation after the siege of Troy that the heroic dynasties fell. Homer uses the term Hellenes for followers of Achilles from Phthiotis, and otherwise uses the terms Danaoi, Argeioi and Achaioi for the Greeks

The first attempted attack on Thebes is placed by Greek tradition in the generation before Tory and the archaeological record lends some support to this, since the palace of Thebes was destroyed in c.1300 BC. According to the legend the sons of Oedipus vied with one another for the throne of Thebes and Eteokles succeeded in driving out Polyneikes, who then found supporters among the other Achaians and lead an attack on the city. In the attempt to storm the city six of the seven leaders were killed, including Polyneikes. After that the Thebans strengthened their fortifications, but they were unable to oppose a second assault by the sons of the seven champions. The surviving Kadmeians fled northward, and according to Homer the Boiotians moved in, this occurring around the time just prior to the Trojan War. The Boiotians are represented in large numbers in Agamemnon's force, but do not have high status.

The war with Troy occurs a little later. Diomedes is said to fight in both wars. Regarding Troy, Troy VI appears to have been ruined by an earthquake around 1300 BC. It was immediately rebuilt as Troy VIIa, but did not achieve as much splendour as its predecessor. The excavations suggest tightly packed dwellings within the walls of the town, indicative of a fortress under long siege. Many storage pits and bins have been found there.

According to one theory the war with Troy took place around 1250 BC at the time when the Hittites were engaged in another war in the east. Homer mentions in the Odyssey that there was an attempt by the prince of the Keteioi to relieve Troy at the last stage, and this looks as if it is derived from the early Greek Kateioi, which may be name Khatti of the Hittite capital. The prince Eurypylos who led the Keteioi could be the Hittite name Urpalla. The account in Homer indicates that the Greeks did not in fact take Troy permanently — they sacked it and went home. Troy appears to have been finally destroyed by a later invasion from Thrace.

The Dorian Invasion and the end of Mycenaean civilisation

Causes of the weakness of the Mycenaean civilisation are probably, firstly, the weakening of their strength through the continual involvement in war; secondly, the possibility that the war chiefs were unable to rely on the support of the peasants being too used to dominate them; thirdly the general decline of trade and the weakening of the Mycenaean economy. According to Greek tradition, the Mycenaeans were attacked by the Dorians, who spoke a coarse Greek dialect and came from the north. Thucydides states that the period after the Trojan war was one of considerable internal conflict in Greece. He also relates an account of the Dorian invasion in league with the Heraclids.

The archaeological record supports this thesis. At some time around 1250 BC there was some destruction at Mycenae, which may have been caused by enemies or internal discord. Subsequently, defensive structures were raised in height. Fortifications were built at Athens, Tiryns, Gla in Boetia and Phocis, in Thessaly. A wall was constructed at the Corinthian Isthmus. There was severe destruction at Krisa (in Phocis), Gla in Boetia, Mycenae, Tiryns, Menelaion in Lakonia, Pylos, Nichoria in Messina. However, eastern Attica and the Aegean were not affected. Mycenae was reoccupied, but was thereafter in decline. There was a migration to Acheae, Kephallenia, Cilicia, and Cyprus. The attack probably came from the north-west or north-east.

According to Greek tradition the Dorians were led by descendants of Herakles, who had been driven out by Eurystheus, who in turn was supplanted by the house of Atreus. It is possible that the story that the Dorians were descended from Herakles was invented. According to legend the first Dorian attack occurred before the Trojan war when the Arcadian king of Tegea defeated them in the vicinity of the isthmus of Corinth. Hyllos, son of Herakles, was said to have been killed in the battle.

The Greek account continues as follows. The Dorians invaded from the north pushing back the Thessalians and the Boetians. They came via Karpenision and the Spercheios Valley, and turned south into Doris via the Mornos valley to the Corinthian gulf. The Greek tradition asserts that this occurred during the reign of Tisamenos, the son of Orestes. They took ships at Naupaktos and crossed to Rhion, on the other side of the Corinthian Gulf in the west and captured Pylos. The main attack was directed at Argos and Lakonia. The palace at Pylos (called the “Palace of Nestor”) was indeed destroyed around this time. From there they moved up the river Alpheios and down the Eurotas, but it took some time before they captured Sparta. However, at some point the houses outside the citadel of Mycenae were burnt to the ground. The citadel survived for another generation, and then it too fell. The Greeks estimated the date to be c. 1100 BC, and this is probably correct. It appears that the Achaians migrated towards the northern Peloponnese, now called Achaia, and the archeological record supports this.

The pattern of languages spoken in archaic Greece supports the thesis of a substantial migration from Northern Greece. A form of Greek similar to that of the Linear B tablets was the common language of the Peloponnese in the prehistoric period. After the Dorian invasion, this archaic dialect could be found in the Peloponnese in Arcadia and Cyprus, but elsewhere Dorian Greek is spoken. The Dorians later took Melos, Thera, Crete, Rhodes and Kos. .

Athenian tradition maintains that the Acropolis did not fall to the Dorians. It is said that the Dorian attack via Boetia was repulsed by Melanthos, who was a grandson of Nestor who took refuge in Athens. Thereafter, Kodros, the son of Melanthos, repelled an attack from the South. However, it is likely that Athens was attacked by Dorians who settled in western Attica and Salamis prior to the final destruction of Salamis. The lower town of Athens was captured, and there may have been some kind of siege in the Acropolis. However, it is also likely that there was some kind of negotiated settlement with the invaders. A Dorian city, Megara, was established on the border of Attica. Furthermore, whilst Athens did survive the attack, no other part of Attica did. All the sites of local bronze-age princes were abandoned during the troubled period.

In should be remarked that the theory of the Dorian invaders is not accepted by all commentators. For example, R J Hopper argues that whilst there is an archaeological dividing line between the Heroic Age (that of the Late Bronze Age) and the subsequent period is marked by the destruction of the Mycenaean centres at the end of the C13th BC., the Dorian myth is a later rationalisation. Prior to this period of disruption the Greeks were probably an ethnic mix, with people taking their names usually from their cities. As this mix did not strictly include the Dorians, there was some effort by later mythographers to twist the saga so as to include them, and to account them as part of the Greek people. Later Greek historians thought of the Dorians as Greeks who were pushed into Thessaly by the Greeks of central Greece, and who later returned via Epirus. It is possible that the Greek historians in their speculations were also influenced by their awareness that some regions of mainland Greece were Dorized and others not. For example, the Spartans were Dorians par excellence, thus leading to the tradition that the Spartans crossed the gulf of Corinth via Doris.

Mycenae was finally destroyed around 1150 BC. Refugees fled to Kephallaneia and Achaea. The destruction was followed in the Peloponnese by a decline in material prosperity and a reduction in the population, though pottery continued to be produced in the Mycenaean tradition.