The Etruscans

I. The Villanovan culture

The Villanovan was originally a bronze age culture with the distinctive feature of burying their dead in “urn-fields” . The Villanovan Iron Age began c. 750 BC around the time of Greek colonization in Italy at Ischia and Cumae. Subsequently, the Villanovan culture died out, and it is not known precisely what happened to it. However, it is likely the Villanovan peoples were absorbed into Etruscan culture in Tuscany and morphed into the Latin culture in Latium. By the C7th BC the peoples of Villanovian culture adopted inhumantion, which was the custom of the Etruscans, and the dead were laid in chamber-tombs cut into rock. Villages coalesced into small and wealthy cities. Greek pottery was imported. The fact that the practice of inhumation only gradually replaces the practice of cremation, practised by the Villanovians, suggests that the influx of the Etruscans was gradual. So it is likely that the Villanovian culture in Tuscany and Latium was assimilated into the Etruscan culture.

II. The origin of the Etruscans

The Greeks called the Etruscans Tursenoi; the Romans called them Etrusci or Tusci, and they called themselves Rasenna. The epic poet Hesiod refers to the Etruscans, calling them Tyrrhenians. The Etruscans culture first appeared in the lands between the Arno and the Tiber around 800 BC. The language of the Etruscans is not Indo-European and has not been fully deciphered.

There is a debate as to whether the Etruscans were an autochthonous people or were immigrants from Asia. The debate began in ancient times! Herodotus (c. 450 BC) maintained that the Etruscans derived from Lydians of western Asia Minor who had migrated as a result of a famine, and this was the view held by the Etruscans themselves and by later Roman writers. On the other hand, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, commenting on the differences between the Etruscan and Lydian languages, concluded that the Etruscans were auto-chthonous. However, their language is generally agreed to have not been an Indo-European one, and on the island of Lemnos in the Aegean a tomb inscription has been discovered in a language akin to Etruscan. The Greek historian Thucydides stated that the pre-Greek population of Lemnos was Tyrrhenian. It is possible that the Etruscans were originally an Aegean peoples who migrated to Tuscany and established themselves as a warrior class and gradually assimilated the Villanovan chthonous culture. The Etruscans lived primarily in cities, and this points again to immigration from the east.

One speculation concerns the attack of the “Peoples of the Sea” which is recorded in c12th BC Egypt records; these people are believed to have been of Achaean Greeks and other peoples of the Aegean. Egyptian records indicate that two attacks by Sea Raiders in 1221 BC and 1190 BC were repulsed. It is possible that some of the repulsed peoples migrated to Italy. In the Mycenaean Age of 1,400 to 1,200 BC there was frequent trade and intercourse between the Aegean and the Western Mediterranean. Peoples migrating from the Aegean region could have had some knowledge of Italy. Whilst the early c12th BC is well before the noted rise of the Etruscan culture, this adds credence to the idea that the Etruscans were immigrants that arrived by sea and imposed themselves as a conquering aristocracy on the earlier people with their Villanovan culture. On this theory, after a period of time, the Etruscan culture absorbed the Villanovan culture and the original language of the Villanovans ceased to be used.

III. Etruscan economy and culture

The Etruscan economy was based on agriculture supplemented by hunting, but the extraction of metals, copper and iron, were also very important. Their understanding of farming was excellent and they had some of the highest crop yields of the ancient period. The Etruscans were skilled at land-reclamation. They also specialized in the extraction of minerals — the region had extensive reserves of copper, lead, tin and iron. It is estimated that the annual production of iron of the region was between 10,000 and 12,000 tons. This output was maintained for over four centuries. They built good roads and traded by sea with Greece, the Levant and Egypt. The Etruscan aristocracy became very wealthy as the extent of their imports from Greece testifies. The Etruscans had serfs and slaves, but very little is known about them.

The Etruscans lived primarily in cities. However, the emergent city-states were separated from each other by geological barriers such as mountains, and Etruria did not evolve into a single state. The cities were linked together as a League of Twelve Cities with a common sanctuary at Fannum Voltumnae near Volsinii, though this site has not been identified as yet. However, this was a religious union rather than a political one, and generally the Etruscan cities remained independent of each other. Their chief god was Voltumna. Rituals and cult games were celebrated at this place. The exact composition of the twelve cities of the League is not known. The cities may be divided into southern and northern groups. The southern group included the cities of Tarquinia, Caere, Vulci, Volsinii and Veii. The northern group included Cortona, Rusellae, Arezzo, Chiusi and Perusia. Mining cities were established on the east coast at Populonia and Vetulonia. The territory of Tarquinia has been estimated to be about 500 square miles; the population of Caere was about 25,000.

The foundation of cities was regulated by religious practices laid down in Ritual Books. It was obligatory to surround a city by a sacred boundary (pomerium). It is possible that the later Roman grid-system was influenced by Etruscan town-planning. Etruscan cities appear to have had two main streets, which is a feature common in Greek cities from the west after c.500 BC. Their temples were squarer than Geek ones. They had stone foundations but wooden superstructures. Houses were made of mud-brick with timber laid on stone foundations and rectangular in design. Cemeteries evolved from pits into family tombs, which were laid out in rows of streets resembling “cities of the dead” (neocropolis). The cemeteries at Caere are a fine example. These family tombs were equipped with furniture and luxuries. The city of Marzabotto, which was abandoned around 400 BC when it was overrun by the Gauls, gives us an indication of their town planning. It was based on a gridiron pattern of a standardized type.

The Etruscans made pottery themselves of a black polished type, but also imported pottery from Greece of every type from geometric onwards. They were very skilled in metal work. They exported jewelry and metalwork widely — examples have been found in Celtic lands.

The Etruscans liked luxury and seem to have been hedonists. For example, painted tombs at Tarquinia depict scenes of banqueting, dancing, hunting and gladiatorial shows. Etruscan art derived from Greek styles, but they established their own brand. The name of one Etruscan master artist survives — this was Vulca of Veii who is said to have made a statue of Apollo and other terracotta statues housed in temples of that city.

The Etruscans practised inhumation in trenches (fossae) and buried increasingly rich ornaments with their dead. Their tombs are colourfully painted depicting scenes of dancing, horse-racing, wrestling, hunting and fishing, but also grim figures of the underworld.

The Etruscans established a reputation for themselves as masters of the occult, later known as the disciplina Etrusca. They believed they could divine the workings of Destiny or Necessity and they held deterministic beliefs about the course of man's fate. The future could be predicted by their science by the interpretation of signs, such as the flight of birds or the entrails of sacrificial victims. Divination by interpretation of entrails is known as haruspicy — the diviners are called haruspices. A bronze liver from Piacenza, one of their working instruments, has been discovered. They were famed for their skill in divination and their secrets were laid down in a number of sacred books. The libri fulgurales dealt with the interpretation of thunder and lightning, the libri haruspicini dealt with the interpretation of the inspection of entrails of sacrificial victims. The Etruscans also practised human sacrifice. Victims were often required to fight each other to the death in gladiatorial shows, the origin of the Roman practice. Towards the end of the Etruscan civilisation, their religion becomes pessimistic and cruel in tone.

Places to study Etruscan civilization include the Villa Giula in Rome and the Archaeological Museum in Florence. Their cemeteries (necropoleis) of Tarquinia and Caere are impressive.

IV. Greek colonization in Italy

Around the end of the c12th BC the Mycenaean culture fell and trade between Italy and Greece almost ceased — though some trade around Tarentum has been detected. The Phoenicians established Carthage, which traded with Tuscany, but they did not directly trade with Italy themselves. After 800 BC the link with the Aegean is resumed and from 750 BC to 500 BC the Greeks extensively colonized Sicily and the southern and western coasts of Italy. It was as a result of Greek influence that the vine and olive were cultivated in Italy. From the Greeks, via Cumae, the use of writing (letter-signs) was also introduced to Italy. However, the Greek cities became embroiled in warfare amongst each other, and as a consequence did not establish hegemony in Italy.

Around 750 BC the Greek cities Chalkis in Euboia, Kyme and Eretria founded Cumae, where later Neapolis (“New City”) came to be. The Phoenicians had already colonised west along the coast of Africa, founding Gaddir where now Cadiz stands and Utica in Tunisia. Political refugees from Utica had also established Carthage (meaning “New City”). In the period after 750 BC the Greeks expanded westward in greater numbers. Chalkis is credited with founding four cities in Sicily and Rhegion (Reggio) at the “toe” of Italy. They probably did this in collaboration with other Greek cities as the name Naxos of one of the settlements suggests. In Sicily the other settlements founded by Chalkis are Leontinoi and Katáne (Catania). A border war between Chalkis and Eretria in Sicily ensued (known as the Lelantine War) and they were joined as allies by Samos and Miletos respectively. As a result of the war the Corinthians took Kerkyra (Corfu) from the Eretrians and Syracuse in Sicily. During the 7th century BC Syracuse rose to become the foremost city of Sicily with a territory extending over the south-east corner of the island. The Cretans with the assistance of Lindos in Rhodes founded Gela around 688 BC. There was a large level of emigration from Achaia to Italy. Italy became known as Great Greece. Megála, Hellas and Sybaris were founded, and the Sybarites went on to found Poseidonia (Paestum) near modern Salerno. At this time Sparta conquered Messenia subduing the population to slavery. However, some Messenians joined the Chalkidians at Reggio. Civil conflict within Sparta led to a group of Spartans treated as second-class citizens by the dominant faction founding a colony at Taranto. Lokris founded western Lokroi near Reggio. Ionians also colonised the area around the mouth of the river Siris. Greek colonies in the west evolved into cities larger and richer than those that spawned them; maintaining contact with mainland Greece, the men of these colonies made significant contributions to Greek art, literature and philosophy.

V. International relations of Etruria

In c. 600 BC the Phoenicians established a colony at Massalia (Marseilles) which was a challenge to the naval power of Carthage. The Phoenicians also attempted to establish a colony at Alalia in Corsica. Carthage and the Etruscans joined forces and defeated the Phocaeans at the naval battled of Alalia c. 535 BC. The Etruscans took control of Corsica and the Carthaginians took Sardinia.

The Etruscans attempted to expand southwards and northwards. In the northwards movement, the Etruscans seem to have established a port at Spina near the mouth of the Po — it is a large city of 700 acres. They also established settlements at Felsina near Bologna, Spina and possibly Mantua. According to Roman tradition they went beyond the Po to the foothills of the Alps, but this has not been confirmed by the archaeological record. However, this expansion was brought to an end by the Gallic invasion of northern Italy in the fifth century BC.

In the south, their campaign southward took them into Latium and Campania. It is not known for certain whether this was an action conducted by Etruscan cities separately, or by their Confederation as a whole. In their expansion southwards they founded a city at Capua around 650 BC. They also established settlements at Nola and Pompeii. To communicate with this city they would need to establish their hegemony at least in Latium. According to Roman tradition, an Etruscan monarchy was established at Rome around 616 BC, and the city of Veii was founded in 600 BC, which would contest with Rome the control of the Tiber.

They entered into war with the Greek colony of Cumae and attacked that city in 524 BC. However, their attack was defeated by Cumae, whose forces were commanded by Aristodemus. In 474 BC they were defeated at sea by a combined force of Cumae and Syracuse. The two defeats cut off their land and sea routes to Capua, and Capua itself was taken by the Samnites in 432 BC, thus ending Etruscan expansion southwards.

VI. Internal politics of Etruscan cities

Originally, the Etruscan city states were organised on a hierarchical basis and were aristocratic. The king wore a purple robe and a golden crown; he carried a sceptre, sat on an ivory throne and was escorted by body-guards (lictors) who carried with them rods (fasces) as symbols of his right to execute or scourge. During the C6th the Etruscan cities probably adopted the Greek military formation of the hoplite, and this may have reduced the power of the king. Roman tradition states that an Etruscan monarchy was established in Rome in 616 BC and overthrown there in 510 BC.

The establishment of an Etruscan monarchy in Rome was not an isolated incident of “Etruscan imperialism” and neither was the overthrow of the Etruscan monarchy in Rome an isolated act of Roman nationalism. Firstly, as part of their push southwards the Etruscan extended their influence into Latium as a whole and other cities in Latium also had Etruscan kings, such as Tusculum and Satricum. In one sense Latium became a part of greater Etruria after c 600 BC, and the founding of Veii, so close to Rome, would have been part of their general expansion into this region. However, Latium retained its own network of related languages and its own religious traditions, so the Etruscans did not impose themselves as a dominant aristocracy over the native population there. Rather, as the traditional account in, for example, Livy, suggests, Etruscan notables joined the local aristocracies and became elected kings. This is the tradition in Roman history. It is probable that it was repeated elsewhere in Latium. At the same time Etruscan influence penetrated further south, and the city of Capua was founded. But this brought the Etruscans into conflict with the Greek sphere of influence. The Greek cities of Italy were noted for the tendency to quarrel among themselves; however, in this case the cities of Cumae and Syracuse united against a common enemy and brought Etruscan expansion southwards to a halt.

Following the check to Etruscan expansion at Cumae the Etruscan monarchy was overthrown at Rome. During the sixth and fifth centuries many Etruscan cities overthrew their kings, which were replaced by magistrates that were usually elected on an annual basis. There are parallels also in Greek history, and the Peisistratids were overthrown in Athens in the same year of 510 BC. The aristocracy was the victor in these struggles. Regarding Rome, it may be inferred that the Etruscans had political support within the city before and after their downfall. According to tradition there were two attempts by the Etruscans to recapture Rome and reimpose Tarquin, the first supported by Veii and Tarquinia, and the second led by Lars Porsenna of Clusium. According to Livy, the attack by Porsenna was repulsed, but the more reliable Tacitus says the city surrendered to Porsenna, which is generally accepted as the truth. However, when the Etruscans under Porsenna were defeated by Cumae at the battle of Aricia in 505 BC this put an end to Etruscan power in Latium, and thereby prevented the restoration of Tarquin.

VII. Rome and the Etruscans

According to Roman tradition the Etruscans held political ascendancy in Rome from 616 to 510 BC. However, only three kings are named: Tarquinius Priscus , Servius Tullius and Tarquinius Superbus. Roman tradition paints the two Tarquins as “bad kings” and Servius Tullius as a “good king”. However, the Emperor Claudius identified Servius Tullius with the Etruscan king Mastarna, whose reputation was not so good. The general view is that there were more than three Etruscan rulers of Rome, and that the date of their ascendancy may have been earlier than 616 BC. Gjerstad claims that the end of the Etruscan monarchy occurred as late as 450 BC, but this has not been generally accepted.

The effect of Etruscan rule on Rome was to urbanize the population. The marshes of the Forum were drained by sewers and the area was paved to become the Forum Romanum, a religious and political centre. The Lapis Niger is a relic of this construction — it bears an archaic inscription. The Scara Via and the Vicus Tuscus were also laid down during this period. The pomoerium, a sacred furrow, was laid down. The city was walled and gates were built. However, the so-called Wall of Servius has been shown to have been built after the Gallic sack of Rome. To Tarqunius Priscus is ascribed the vow to build the great temple of Jupiter Optimus, with cellae for Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, who together form the Capitoline Triad; it was actually constructed by Tarquinius Superbus. The terracotta statue of Jupiter was made by Vulca, the master from Veii. The temple was destroyed by fire in 83 BC. Whilst parts of the structure have been discovered, the only major relic of the period is the great bronze Capitoline Wolf. The goddess Diana was worshipped in the Aventine, which according to tradition was established by Servius Tullius as the centre of the federal cult of the Latins.

Under the Etruscans Rome became an important trading centre. Greek pottery was imported, and some may have been re-exported. The Forum Boarium was established as a centre of commerce sometime around 575 BC. Later at the Ara Maxima in this area Heracles was worshipped as patron of traders.

The region over which Rome had control (the aeger Romanus) is believed to have been about 250 square kilometers; an impressive area, but inferior to the area controlled by Veii and a quarter of that controlled by Tarquinia, thus giving us some idea of the relative importance of these cities at that time. Throughout this period Veii was more dominant than Rome; it was a larger and more sophisticated centre; Veii also controlled the saltpans of Ostia and the land route up the Tiber.

The Etrurian king Servius Tullius at Rome is also credited with reforming the military by providing a census and making military service depend on the ownership of property. He also established the Comitia Centuriata as a new political assembly. His military reform was to bring the Roman defence into line with the Greek invention of the hoplite — heavy-armed infantry. This was in common with military reforms throughout Etruria. As a political measure this would have favoured the middle classes within Rome at the expense of the aristocracy.

It is likely that the Romans at this time captured Alba Longa together with its sanctuaries around 600 BC. Tarquinius Superbus is said to have captured Gabii and Pometia. The treaty with Carthage mentioned by Polybius indicates that Rome is speaking not just for itself but also for its allies, so this implies that Rome had at least hegemony in the region.

Etruria was weakened by the Celtic migration which started after 500 BC. The Celts started pouring over the Alps in large numbers after c. 400 BC. The Etruscan cities of Marzabotto and Felsina fell — Felsina c. 350 BC. The Gauls went into battle naked and their opponents were terrified. The Galls took over the region north of the Apennines and it later became known as Gallia Cisalpina. This ended Etruscan expansion in the north.