The Structure of Wilhelmine Germany 1890 - 1914

The Constitution of Imperial Germany

Structure

The Reich was made of 25 sovereign states and Alsace Lorraine annexed in 1871. But Prussia comprised 2/3rds of German territory, which made Wilhelm II automatically Emperor. He had control over foreign policy, was commander-in-chief of all armed forces, and could alone appoint the Chancellor and the executive.

The Bundersrat (Federal Coucil) had 58 representatives from various state governments and was theoretically the most important decision making body in the empire, with the right to change the constitution. But Prussia had 17 seats and since 14 votes were required for a veto, Prussia could veto any measure.

Only states could raise income tax and direct taxes. The imperial government could only tax indirectly.

The Kaissereich's constitution aimed to institutionalise the position and power of Bismarck himself and to preserve the privileges of Prussia and its ruling class. But the chancellor's position was very weak and dependent on the Kaiser.

The Reichstag

The Reichstag directly elected by universal suffrage in secret ballot. It could not introduce legislation, but could only discuss and ratify proposals of the Bundesrat and Imperial Council.

The Reichstag was required to ratify legislation. Anti-Socialist legislation prior to 1878 had limited socialists to a handful of seats. The government was supported by the right-wing parties - Conservatives, Free Conservatives and National Liberals, but these were in decline. In 1887 they had 48% of the popular votes, declining to 26% in 1912. The consistently largest party was the Centre Party, winning between 90 & 110 seats in every Reichstag. The Social Democrats increased in strength. In 1887 they had 10.1% of the vote rising to 34.8% in 1912. However, though it represented the bulk of the working class it was divided within - especially, between radicals and moderates. The State viewed it as a force for evil & sought no accommodation with it.

The Strata of German Society

German society was divided along class lines - with little mobility between classes. The higher levels of the civil service and army were the preserve of the nobility. The landed nobility (Junkers) were politically powerful but pinched economically. Wilhelminian businessmen sought to emulate the Junkers rather than rival them. The National Liberals became the main representatives of business and industry; as a party they became increasingly conservative.

The middle ranks were socialized into servants of the state - for example, teachers and civil servants were classified as Beamte (State Officials), were strictly regulated in conditions of employment, but were granted rights of tenure and pensions in return. Their status was highly cherished and widely respected. The lower middle class (Mittlestrand) was squeezed and became resentful and disenchanted looking to the pre-industrial ear as one of a golden age. Smallholders and landless labourers had a particularly difficult existence.

Class divisions were overlain by divisions on the basis of religion, regional affiliation, national identity of minorities. Thus over 10% of seats in the Reichstag were won by representatives of national minorities.

Since modern warfare draws on the support of the masses, its nature creates a drive towards increased democratization of society, with a greater franchise. Following the unification of Germany, Bismarck introduced universal male suffrage for elections to the Imperial Parliament (called the Reichstag). However, the executive in Germany was appointed solely by the Emperor and was not responsible to Parliament. Nonetheless, the German government did require the political support of parties within the Reichstag. The central pro-Government party was the National Liberal Party, which was supported by the middle classes. But in 1878 Bismarck broke his alliance with the Liberal party because he did not wish to alter the constitution to require the government to be responsible to Parliament. In practice, the government only needed a majority in the Reichstag on certain key votes — such as for budgetary and legislative proposals. Bismarck sought to obtain majorities on these occasions by political maneuvering rather than by creating a permanent pro-government coalition, to which he would have had to answer.

The rising power of the working classes, together with their ongoing exploitation and poverty, created a “class situation” that fueled tension in society. For example, in 1878 there were two attempts on the life of Wilhelm I. Bismarck attacked socialists as a result, restricting socialist activity by banning party organisations, publications and meetings, and expelling socialist militants from their homes.

In 1875 the Marxist and Lassalle branches of the socialist movement united to form the Social Democratic Party. The leaders were August Bebel and William Liebknecht, who remained in touch with Marx until Marx's death in 1883. The German socialist party subscribed to Marxism. As German industry grew so did the membership of the Social Democratic Party.

Statistics on the rise of the Social Democratic Party

In 1912 the SDP became the single largest party in the Reichstag, and one in three Germans voted for it.

Between 1895 and 1913 working conditions remained dismally poor. 30% of all family households lived on or below subsistence level. From 1912 to 1914 there were rising prices and rising unemployment. Troops were used to break a strike in the Ruhr in 1912 and there was a lock-out in Hamburg shipyards.

Some businessmen sought to improve social conditions. Walter Rathenau, chairman of AEG, published books calling for the abolition of inherited wealth and for a redistribution of incomes. He was regarded as a traitor by his class and his fellow industrialists, and as a hypocrite by socialists.

The Emperor and his Court

Wilhelm II, born in 1859, was the eldest son of Crown Prince Friedrich and Victoria, eldest daughter of Queen Victoria. He was born with partial paralysis of his left arm. He was intelligent and charming, but superficial and prejudiced. He was hyper-sensitive, vain, and subject to mood swings. His behaviour can be seen as symptoms of insanity, megalomania and sadism. He was at least “deeply disturbed”. He believed in autocracy and in his divine right to rule. He held himself accountable to God alone. He saw himself as a Hohenzollern warrior king. He was prone to whimsical flights of fancy. He surrounded himself with sycophants. His personal friends were Eulenburg and Bülow. But it is an opinion that Bülow was an insincere sycophant. The Kaiser himself was not hardworking.

H.U. Wehler argues the structuralist view that the Kaiser was not in fact in control of Germany - but rather the non-elected elites were dominant - Junkers, army officers, civil servants, judiciary, diplomatic corps. The historical elites allied with the industrial elites in order to preserve power. Forces of democracy & socialism were portrayed as enemies of the Reich. However, in reply, Röhl does not accept the reduced role accorded to the Kaiser.

Another view is provided by Blackburn & Ely, who stress the existence of popular movements, and the politics of different regions. They believe that Germany's political leaders were not so much manipulating, but actually responding to public opinion.

The Economy and infrastructure

Generally 1890 - 1914 was a period of sustained economic growth - growth of 7 - 8% per annum. There were recessions in 1891 and 1901 due to downturns in the trade cycle. The economy diversified into producing steel, chemicals and electrical goods. By 1914 Germany was Europe's industrial superpower, exceeding Britain in coal production. Steel output was double that of Britain by 1914. 50% of the world's electrical products were made in Germany, where AEG and Siemens dominated the market. Population increased from 41.1 million in 1871 to 64.9 million in 1910. Coal output increased from 37.7 million ions in 1871 to 222.2 million tons in 1910. Industrial output multiplied almost 5 times in the period 1871 - 1913. Throughout this period Germany had a surplus in its balance of payments. The total labour force increased from 18.65 million in 1875 to 30.97 million in 1913. Germany had raw materials - coal from the Rhur, Saar and Silesia. Iron-ore from Alsace-Lorraine and Rhur. Potash from Alsace-Lorraine.

There was a strong growth of cartels - by 1905 there were 366 cartels compared to 90 cartels in 1885. The banking system was also expert; it expanded rapidly and worked closely with industry - granting long-term credit facilities

Germany had the best educational system in the world. Germany took the lead, developing universities and institutes of technology. By 1913 Germany had 60,000 university students, compared to Britain's 9,000. In Germany the centralisation of financial control was very advanced, with huge cartels and industrial trusts. As a result a well-organised and disciplined socialist party also emerged.