The Reign of Alexander II and the Great Reforms

Alexander II

Alexander II (1855-81) realized that reforms were necessary. Alexander II was 36 years old when he acceded to the throne. The Crimean war had brought the country to the point of collapse.

He was set upon reform from the start, and had a conviction that his mission was to alleviate the suffering of his people. He was supported in his desire for reform by his brother, Grand Duke Constantine. Only the emancipation of the serfs could create the conditions for economic growth and the modernization of the armed forces.

He was opposed by “vested interests”; nonetheless, in the opinion of Lionel Kochan & John Keep, in The Making of Modern Russia “the emancipation of the serfs [was] arguable the greatest piece of socio-economic legislation attempted anywhere in the world hitherto.” But this is an assessment that is open to criticism.

Conclusion of the Crimean War

Prior to his death, Nicholas I had agreed to attend a conference in Vienna to discuss peace terms. Alexander decided to attend it, and it opened in March, 1855. It was proposed that the Russia should lose its protectorates of Modavia, Wallachia and Serbia; that all powers should be permitted to navigate the Danube; that the Dardanelles should be closed to warships of all nations; and that Russia not be allowed to maintain a fleet in the Black Sea. However, the closure of the Dardanelles to warships of all countries was objected to by the other Powers, and the conference closed without agreement.

Alexander II decided to order the defence of Sebastopol. The Russian troops were commanded by Gorchakov, but in September he was forced to evacuate the town with losses in total of 100,000 killed or wounded. The Tsar visited the theatre of war himself, and on returning to St. Petersburg accepted that peace would be necessary, especially as Austria and Prussia were now both threatening to intervene. In February 1856 a peace conference was held at Paris. Russia agreed to cede the mouth of the Danube and part of Bessarabia, not to maintain a fleet in the Black Sea, and to keep out of Turkish affairs. Sebastapol was returned to Russia and Kars (taken by the Russians in 1855) was returned to Turkey. The treaty was signed in March 1856, the Russians accepting that only by unconditional acceptance of the terms would further escalation of the conflict be avoided. They also had to accept the principle of joint responsibility by the Powers for the protection of Christians under Ottoman rule.

By the terms of the Treaty of Paris Russia was denied a Black Sea fleet. However, Russia was treated leniently in the clauses of this Treaty, although it still meant that she had to agree to (1) a demilitarized zone in the Black Sea; (2) loss of southern Bessarabia that had formally given her control over the Danube; (3)

The “Great Reforms” — 1. The Emancipation of the Serfs

Russian public opinion was shocked by the defeat in the Crimea and the mood became favourable to change. However, Alexander proceeded only cautiously at first.

Alexander turned to younger ministers to assist him; this was provided ably by Nicholas Milyutin and Lanskoy. In November 1857 the provinces were instructed to draw up definite plans for the emancipation of the serfs with some redistribution of land, and pressure was put on them to make acceptable recommendations. However, the gentry opposed this, and in April 1858 it appeared that Alexander would bow to their wishes. Where land was not fertile the landlords were willing to make extensive land allotments, but landlords in the Black Earth region, which was the most fertile part of Russia, were not so generous. With the assistance of Rostovtsev, Alexander returned to his liberalizing programme, and he opted for a scheme were the serfs would be granted land at once to use, and title at a later date with government assistance to help them pay for it. However, the strained government finances prevented this, and as a result liberated peasants would have to buy back the land entirely at their own cost. Rostovtsev died in February 1860, and his successor, Count Panin, was one of the greatest landowners of the empire, with over 20,000 serfs. The State Council fell under conservative influence and was at the last moment able to insert a clause to the effect that peasants could accept 'beggarly allotments' in return for the exemption from redemption payments. The legislation was published on 19th February, 1861. As the law fell far short of popular expectations, it was met by considerable violence — 647 riots in the first four months after publication of the edict.

With peace established Alexander II turned his attention to reform. He removed conservatives from the government — such as Count Peter Kleinmichel the ineffective minister for communications who has failed to maintain the roads in the Crimea. His successor, General Constantine Chevkin immediately set about promoting the development of new railways throughout Russia. Alexander also replaced Count Orlov as chief of the Third Section with the more liberal Prince Vassili Dolgorukov, and restrictions on the universities were lifted. Herzen's paper Kolokol ('The Bell') advocating emancipation of the serfs was allowed to circulate without restrictions. Alexander was crowned in August 1856, at which time amnesties were granted to the survivors of the Decembrist uprisings, and tax relief granted to the provinces most affected by the war.

Alexander II made his intention to emancipate the serfs widely known, speaking at a gathering of Moscow nobles in April 1856 he said, “the present practice of owning souls cannot continue unchanged' and that it was 'better to abolish serfdom from above rather than wait until it begins to abolish itself from below' but he also denied rumours that the government had plans for an immediate emancipation. He wanted the nobles to take the initiative themselves, and the Committee on Peasant Affairs established in January 1857 was initially staffed by nobles and large serf-owners. It was under the chairmanship of the conservative Count Orlov, but also staffed by those in favour of emancipation — Lanskoy, Count Blodov and Rostovtzev. However, the landowners were mostly determined to oppose the policy, and the conservatives on the committee employed delaying tactics, so that the committee reported that general emancipation was currently impossible.

Thus, in September 1857, in an effort to get progress, Alexander II appointed his brother, Grand Duke Constantine, to join the committee. At the beginning of 1858 the committee was replaced by a central group for emancipation that was staffed mainly by those in favour of emancipation — the Grand Duke, Lanskoy, Rostovtzev and Milyutin, and the Tsar put the group under pressure to produce concrete plans. However, it was still under the chairmanship of the conservative Count Orlov, and the Grand Duke resigned. In December 1858 the Empress Marie wrote to her brother Prince Alexander that reform proceeded “very slowly on account of the passive resistance of those in high places, and of the great prevailing ignorance ... The situation is very serious, and the Tsar's position is very difficult, since people show little or no sympathy with him.” In was in autumn 1860 that the draft legislation was ready for the chief committee to consider. However, in February 1860 Rostovtzev died, and he was replaced by the conservative Count Panin. But Prince Orlov fell ill and his position as chairman was taken over by Grand Duke Constantine. The act was signed by the Tsar on 19th February, 1861; it was published in Moscow and St. Petersburg two days later, and in the provinces after that.

The comment of the Times was that emancipation “was the first and greatest, but it cannot be the last of the Russian reforms”. It warned that the Tsar “must expect to see it followed by a free criticism of bureaucratic abuses, and perhaps by a firm demand for a liberal Constitution.” The reform was not greeted with widespread enthusiasm in Russia. The peasants were angry at the imposition of taxes and the need to redeem the land by paying for it, whilst the landlords retained most of the meadows and pastures. Riots broke out throughout Russia, and fifty peasants were killed in Kazan when troops fired on angry demonstrators. Many landlords were ill-prepared for the emancipation, especially those with large debts whose assets comprised mainly serfs. There was widespread unrest in the universities, which caused the Tsar to replace the liberal minister of education, Evgraf Kovlevsky with the reactionary Admiral Putiatin. There were further riots in 1861 in Moscow and St. Petersburg. The Tsar was disillusioned and his health suffered as a consequence.

2. Local government

The government as a consequence of the emancipation lost the support of the gentry in rural administration, who were angry at losing their serfs. As a consequence a new organ of rural administration had to be created. So the Tsar also undertook reform of local government — establishing local councils known as zemstva, which had administrative responsibilities — for example, for maintaining primary schools, roads, hospitals, clinics, welfare work and agricultural policy. However, these were not elected on universal suffrage and the government ensured that they were dominated by the local landowners and gentry.

The zemstva (singular, zemstvo) were established by a statute of January 1864. Deputies were elected by indirect suffrage for three-year terms. Each council elected from among its members an executive. The zemstva received no central funding, and expenditure had to be met by local taxes. Nonetheless, they achieved a lot, and many hospitals and schools were built under their initiatives. These assemblies also had the advantage of providing a forum where landlords and ex-serfs could meet and debate. In June 1870 similar provisions were introduced for towns, and many municipal councils were responsible for public works such as paving, street lighting, urban transport, hygiene initiatives and welfare. There was a development of civic responsibility.

3. Judicial system

Nicholas I had appointed a committee in 1850 to examine the judicial system. Alexander II reconvened this committee in 1861, and within three years there were a series of reforms of the judicial system. Alexander stated that he wished 'to introduce into Russia legal proceedings that are swift, just, merciful and equal for all'. Statues of November 1864 made considerable efforts in this direction.

The use of corporal punishment of civilians was abolished. Judges were granted life tenure so as to secure their independence, and cases were heard by juries in open court. The accused were given the right to counsel, and more equality before the law ensued as a result. However, lawsuits between peasants continued to be settled in arbitrary and possibly cruel ways. Russian lawyers were important in the struggle for civil rights.

4. The armed forces

Reform of the army was delayed owing to financial constraints. Reforms eventually introduced included introduction of new weapons and revised training methods. Recruitment was also reformed since the serfs had been emancipated.

Furthermore, the liberal, General Dimitri Milyutin was made responsible for reform of the army and navy. There was a drive to reduce the number of conscripts in the army, and creating a more highly trained force. The war minister, Dmitriy Milyutin, younger brother of Nicholas, drove through reforms against conservative opposition. In 1874 a law introducing general conscription was introduced. This created the radical principle that all classes were conscripted according to the same rules, though the existence of service exemptions still meant that conscription was applied unevenly. The naval minister, Grand Duke Constantine, introduced improvements that increased the quality and morale of the sailors.

5. The economy, culture and education

By the end of Alexander II's reign railway track increased from 660 miles to 14,000 miles. Private banking was legalised. Finland was granted its own government. Assimilation of Jews was encouraged, some anti-Jewish legislation was abolished.

In 1858 a pamphlet written by Bellyustin was smuggled into Russia, in which the problems of the lower-orders of the clergy were exposed. They were subject to the 'crushing routine' of combining farming with their religious duties and also to the authority of the upper caste of the clergy, to which promotion was impossible. The Russian Orthodox Church attempted ineffectual reforms. The church was weakened by internal disputes.

There were developments in education, and by the early 1880s about 14% of boys between 8 and 12 attended school. The zemstvos provided the largest proportion of the funding at 43%.

Dimitry Tolstoy became minister of education, but was a conservative concerned to prevent subversion, to which aim he established a team of school inspectors. The universities grew in numbers, but there was considerable student radicalism. The university reform of 1863 allowed universities more autonomy.

There was a further cultural efflorescence — Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky and Turgenev in literature; Mussorgsky and Rimsky-Korsakov in music. The St. Petersburg Conservatory of Music was opened in 1862.

There were advances in the Science too — Mendeleyev created the periodic table, Timiryazev started work on photosynthesis, and Dokuchayev made discoveries in soil science. Nonetheless, the country continued to suffer from being technologically behind Western countries.

After the reaction to the 1848 revolution (1848-55), there was a period in which the censorship laws were relaxed.

Foreign affairs — 1. German war with Denmark

Russia was uneasy over the German war with Denmark in 1864, but was unable to intervene, being more concerned also to avoid the possibility of revolution in Berlin.

Alexander, together with foreign minister Gorchakov, had aimed at developing links with Napoleon III, and in 1859 the Russians agreed not to intervene when the French sought to drive Austria out of Northern Italy. However, the rapprochement ended when Napoleon III supported rebellious Poles in 1863. After that Alexander II opted for an alliance with Prussia, which Bismarck in Prussia was keen to cultivate. Collaboration over the Polish question continued for 27 years and Russia agreed to be neutral during the Prussian wars with Denmark (1864) and Austria (1866).

2. Franco-Prussian war

Russia supported Germany during the Franco-Prussian war that began in June 1870, and he ordered a grand banquet of celebration when news of the French defeat at Sedan reached St. Petersburg. Thus Russia also remained neutral during the 1870 Franco-Prussian war as a result of which Germany was united under Wilhelm I. But the Russians used the war as an opportunity to denounce the naval clauses of the Treaty of Paris in October 1870, and the Powers agreed to this at the convention of London, March 1871.

However, the Prussian success in Germany gave impetus to the pan-slav movement in Russia. There was an increasingly large faction of people in favour of Russian intervention in the Balkans with a view to establishing a pan Slav nation dominated by Russia. The Tsarina was particularly prominent in this movement. However, Alexander II is said to have been reluctant to join it, regarding the vision of a Panslav empire as unrealistic.

As foreign minister Gorchakov understood Russia's limitations and sought to avoid embroiling Russia in European 'adventures', and maintain the balance of power. He was instrumental in bringing about the Three Emperors' Agreement of 1873. He was supported by the war and finance ministries who realized that Russia was not prepared for a war. However, there were divisions within the Foreign ministry and the Asiatic department, under Ignatyev, pursued a different and more aggressive policy.

3. The near-East crisis and the Congress of Berlin

Within Russia Slavophilism was mutating into strident Russian nationalism, and other Slav nations were not enamoured of Russian initiatives in this direction. The Poles refused to send delegates to the Slav Congress of 1867 held in Moscow. In 1869 Danilevsky published Russia and Europe in which he predicted a titanic confrontation between the Germanic and Slavic races. Also in that year General Fadeyev published his Opinion on the Eastern Question in which he advocated that Russia should destroy the Austrian and Ottoman empires. The editor of the Moscow News, Katkov, was the most strident nationalist, whose version of pan-Slavism was code for Russian nationalism. He advocated cooperation with the French Third Republic as a means to opposing Germany and Austria.

However, the rebellion by Slavs in the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovnia in the summer of 1875 caused a great wave of unrest in Russia, and many Russians volunteered to serve with the Serbs and made their way to Belgrade. The Tsar paid head to the warnings of the finance minister, Michael Reutern, who advised that a war would ruin the economy. However, members of the Royal family were among those who most fervently advocated intervention. The news of the Turkish massacre of 12,000 slavs increased the pressure on the Tsar to intervene, and he ordered a partial mobilisation. In autumn 1876 he authorised foreign minister, Count Ignatev, to issue Turkey with an ultimatum. In April 1877 Turkey rejected Russian proposals for joint demobilisation and for guarantees for the freedom of the Balkan peoples. It was agreed that Austria would retain Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Russia declared war in April 1877. The first three months of campaigning went Russia's way, but they then encountered very stiff resistance from the Turks at Plevna, suffering defeats and very heavy casualties of 60,000 before finally taking it in December 1878. After this the Turkish resistance collapsed and Constantinople lay open to the Russian forces; however, the Tsar, fearing for the British reaction, did not press onto Constantinople; additionally, the troops were exhausted. At the Treaty of San Stefano a new large state of Bulgaria under Russian control was created, and Serbia, Montenegro and Romania all became free of Turkish rule. However, the Treaty was opposed by Britain, and the Russians accepted the German offer of a conference to be held in Berlin conducted by Bismarck. At the Congress Russia recovered those parts of Bessarabia it had lost during the Crimean war, and gained control over half of Bulgaria, with the other half becoming an independent state. Russia did not do well at the conference, and the economy was ruined as a result, with finance minister Reutern resigning. Furthermore, the Tsar was blamed for the humiliating peace terms. The Russian government was unpopular at home as a result, and pushed Russian public opinion towards favouring an alliance with France. It left the Tsar isolated domestically, and put a strain on Russo-German relations.

4. Russian expansion Eastwards

Russia continued to expand eastwards. The Siberian populations were subjected to increasingly heavy taxation, and epidemics of syphilis and the influence of vodka and tobacco undermined the social fabric of these populations. Only the Yakuts adapted successfully.

Russian pioneers made their way into Alaska, which was for a time jointly administered by a Russo-American company founded in 1797, which strong points stretching down the Pacific coast to San Francisco. However, the Alaskan province was too remote to defend effectively and in 1853 the governor of Siberia, N. N. Muravyov, recommended its sale to America, and this duly took place in 1867 for $7.2 million. Muravyov was instrumental in obtaining Russian control over the Sakhalin island in 1875 in a deal with Japan which involved exchanging the Kuriles. These were nominally under Chinese control, but the Chinese were too weak to resist Russian and Japanese expansion into the region. Russia also extended its control into the Ussuri valley and built a port and naval base there — Vladivostok (1860) which means 'Rule the East'.

Expansion into Central Asia ran the risk of antagonizing the British. However, the Kikand khanate was invaded in 1863, and the capital, Tashkent, fell in June 1865; it was renamed Turkestan. Bokhara was captured in 1868, and Khiva in 1873. In 1869 the Russians established a naval base at Krsnovodsk on the eastern shore of the Caspian sea. Turkmenistan resisted effectively for a while, but in 1881 the capital, Geok Tepe, fell. The region of Merv on the Afghan border fell under Russian rule in 1884. This provoked a crisis with Britain. Russian rule brought the abolition of slavery and the construction of railways; also cotton cultivation was introduced. Otherwise, there were few economic or social consequences.

Reversal of policy — 1. Autocratic tendencies and personal matters

The Tsar began to call a halt to reform. In 1865 delegates of the Moscow provincial assembly petitioned the Tsar to summon a general elected assembly with delegates from the whole of Russia. In reply, the Tsar affirmed his belief in his divine right to rule, and asserted that he alone had the right to initiate reforms.

As early as November 1861 Bismarck, then Prussian ambassador to St. Petersburg, reported a conversation with the Tsar in which the Tsar was reported to have said, “to abdicate the absolute power with which his crown was invested would be to undermine the aura of that authority which has dominion over the nation. The deep respect, based on an innate sentiment, with which .... surrounds the throne of its Emperor cannot be parcelled out. I would diminish without any compensation the authority of the government if I wanted to allow representatives of the nobility or the nation to participate in it.”

The reaction gathered pace after an attempt on the Tsar's life in 1866 by Dmitri Karkozov, who tried to shoot him with a revolver, being thwarted by a bystander. Karkazov claimed to have no accomplices and was hanged for the attempt. However, the event brought to the fore conservatives in the government, such as Count Dmitri Tolstoy, and prince Paul Gagarin, chairman of the committee of ministers. The Tsar's eldest son, Grand Duke Nicholas, fell ill in April 1864 and died, thus making the second son, Alexander, the heir. Both Tsar and Tsarina (Maria) were distraught with bereavement, but the event served to widen the emotional gulf developing between them. In 1857 the Tsar began an emotional attachment with the widow of Prince Dolgorouky, Princess Catherine Dolgorouky, which was to become the centre of his emotional life. This caused further estrangement between him and his wife and sons, since the sons sided with their mother.

2. Nihilism

The term nihilism derives from Ivan Turgenev's novel, Fathers and Sons, published in 1862. Turgenev describes a nihilist as “a person who does not take any principle for granted, however much that principle may be revered.” Later that year there were serious fires in St. Petersburg which were attributed to the activities of “nihilists” though the subsequent investigation found no proof. Nonetheless, the fires were followed by a reactionary crackdown and people were arrested on scant evidence.

3. The People's Will

Members of the Russian intelligentsia could undergo a kind of 'enlightenment' at school or university, rejecting family ties in favour of revolutionary sentiments. Student circles started to form after 1856, and there were protests against the inadequate reforms of serfdom in 1861. Chernyshevsky published a periodical called The Contemporary. The authorities over-reacted and Chernyshevsky was arrested on false charges, and subsequently sentenced to 14 years penal servitude in Siberia. The movement lacked a leader and drifted as a result. Russian society as a whole shifted to the right after the Polish revolt, and even more so after the first (failed) assassination attempt on Alexander II's life in 1866, enacted by Karakazov. The crack-down continued and over 700 activists were arrested. Their activities became more clandestine. In 1876 a movement called 'Land and Liberty' was reformed under the leadership of Natanson and Mikhaylov. The organization clashed violently with the police and drifted towards terrorism. The invention of dynamite made the use of bombs the preferred weapon of the terrorist.

In January 1878 the police chief of St. Petersburg, Fedor Trepov, had a demonstrator flogged — this punishment having been made illegal. In retaliation Vera Zasulich assassinated Trepov. In fact, public opinion was in Zasulich's favour, since Trepov had violated the law, and she was acquited by the jury at her trial. Other assassinations followed — for example, General Mezentsev, head of the St. Petersburg police by a former army officer, Serge Kravchinsky.

The Tsar instituted a reaction, appointing temporary governor generals in various parts of the country with the power to made raids, arrests, expulsions, imprisonments and executions. Military courts were allowed to try civilians accused of terrorism, and the powers of arrest on suspicion were increased.

In 1879 Prince Dmitri Kropotkin, reknown for his brutal treatment of political prisoners, was assassinated, and also General Drentein, who had succeeded Mezentsev.

Members of the Land and Liberty movement debated their course of action; the terrorists won and styled themselves the 'People's Will', which declared its intention of assassinating the Tsar. It was led by Andew Zelyabov and Sophia Perovskaya, who was the daughter of a former governor of St. Petersburg. In September, 1879 they condemned Alexander II to death, and issued him with an ultimatum promising only to spare him if he granted a constituent assembly. There was an attempt in November 1879 when Zhelyabov failed to blow up a train on which Alexander II was traveling.

There was a serious attempt on his life in February 1880 when a carpenter Stephen Khalturin was able to smuggle explosives into the Winter Palace. Eight soldiers were killed and forty-five people were wounded in the blast. After that the Tsar and his family lived in daily terror.

The Tsar responded by initiating measures to increase security; however, he also instructed his minister, Loris-Melikov, to draw up proposals for a constitution. Loris-Melikov was active in promoting increased vigilance on the part of the police. The arch conservative, Tolstoy, was replaced as Minister for Education by Andrew Saburov; however, Pobedonostsev was appointed as procurator of the holy synod in order to gain the support of the Tsarevich, who initially backed the new regime. The Tsarina died in May 1880. The Tsar married Princess Catherine Dolgorouky in July 1880 in a private ceremony.

Loris-Melikov advised the Tsar that terrorism was now under control, and the Tsar abolished the supreme executive commission, thus signaling an end to the period of extreme repression. Loris-Melikov was appointed minister for the interior, who proceeded to draw up plans for a constitution, which he presented to the Tsar in January 1881, assuring him that they would not limit his prerogative. However, the proposals were opposed by Pobedonostsev on the grounds that they introduced constitutionalism by the back door.

Zelyabov and Perovskaya continued to plot the assassination of Alexander II, and there was a panic-stricken mood in the capital, with frequent evidence of bomb plots being uncovered, so that any public event attended by the Tsar was likely to be deserted. Loris-Melikov prepared a detailed Manifesto on reform advocating the enlargement of the Council of State as a preparatory to further enlarged deliberative assembly. This was presented to the Tsar in February 1880. He also warned the Tsar not to attend a Parade Ground display scheduled for the following day, but the Tsar ignored his advice, and was attacked by four bomb throwers, each armed with grenades. The Tsar escaped the first grenade but was fatally wounded by the second when he stopped to examine the wounded. He was not killed instantly, but died later at the Winter Palace.

Edward Crankshaw judged that Alexander II was “a reforming monarch who drew back appalled by the radical and revolutionary forces he had unleashed and fell back into reaction.” However, British Prime-Minister Disraeli, himself with only six weeks to live, gave a speech to the House of Lords, in which he described him as “the most beneficent prince that ever filled the throne of Russia.”

Stephen Graham's assessment of the People's Will is that “they insisted on murdering a liberal intelligent Tsar to make a stupid reactionary Grand Duke Emperor.”

The problem of the nationalities and Russification

It is possible that the success of the terrorist group, the People's Will, in assassinating Alexander II, has led to an exaggeration of their importance. The biggest threat internally may have come from minority nationalism.

There was a revolt in Russian Poland. Unrest there was kept under control whilst Michael Gorchakov, the former commander of the forces in the Crimea, was viceroy of Poland. On his death in May 1861 he was replaced first by General Lüders and then by the liberal, the Tsar's brother, Grand Duke Constantine. Constantine was wounded on his second day in Poland, and unrest grew. Alexander tried conciliation with the Poles, but this was unsuccessful. Polish students and landowners alike developed further opposition to the Tsar. The landowners organized themselves into an Agricultural Society. The Russians attempted to set up a semi-autonomous regime, but when the Agricultural Society was closed, there was further violence. In January 1863 a draft was introduced, and in response many nationalists went into hiding in the woods and instituted guerrilla warfare. The insurrection spread to Lithuania and Belarus. In that month Polish nationalists killed Russian soldiers whilst sleeping in their barracks in Warsaw, and all nine Polish provinces errupted into violence as all sections of the Polish community joined together to throw off the Russian yoke. The Russians responded with severe reprisals and there were atrocities committed by both sides. The insurrection was quelled in May 1864.

The Finns faired better for a time. In 1863 Alexander responded to pressure from them by convening the Finnish Diet. Finnish became the sole official language, and separate currency was created. Finnish solders, under an act of 1874, could not be made to serve outside Finland.

However, in Belarus and the Ukraine, the local languages were officially replaced by Russian. One response was to fuel Ukrainian nationalism, and a clandestine organization called the 'Brotherhood of Cyril and Methodius' was created, lead by the historians, Kostomarov and Kulish. However, the members of this brotherhood were arrested in 1847. Although the Russian police were effective in curtailing the influence of the 1848 revolutions within Russia, Ukrainian nationalism was fueled by influences from Galicia which was under Austrian rule.

The Jewish population of Russia underwent a degree of secular enlightenment. Alexander II relaxed the discrimination against Jews in the Pale of Settlement, and allowed Jews with academic degrees to live outside the Pale. Jewish parents sent their children to Russian schools, and these students became attracted to new ideas — in general, this small Jewish intelligentsia rejected orthodox Jewish faith for socialism.