Education and Ethnicity

Race and ethnicity

The background concept here is that of the divisions introduced into society by the existence of distinctions between groups of people along the lines of race and ethnicity. Does membership of a non-white racial or ethnic group mean that, on average, your educational opportunities in Britain, or elsewhere, are lower? The answer to that appears to be “yes”!

Conflict theorists (Marxists) subordinate racial conflict to class conflict, arguing that divisions in society along racial and ethnic lines are manifestations of class conflict. It is another way in which the capitalist class exerts control over the workers, but falsely dividing them into sub-groups and setting conflict in motion between these sub-groups.

Ethnic groups and Educational Attainment

Pupils from ethnic backgrounds generally have lower educational attainment than white pupils. Asians are less behind than other ethnic groups. The Bangladeshi are particularly disadvantaged. Thus 1981/2 percentage of school leavers with 5 or more graded GCSE results: 23% was the national average; 17% Asian; 6% West Indian. In recent years ethnic minorities have tended to stay on in full-time education longer than whites. For example, in 1988 - 90 37% white compared to 43% West Indian; 66% Asian. But these differences are probably due to the increased difficulty that ethnic minorities have in finding a job. (This period coincided with very high unemployment.)

Causes

It is most natural to attribute this difference of educational attainment between whites in Britain and other racial and ethnic minorities to environmental and structural factors. For example, black people on average have less wealth than white people; white people, on average, go to those schools, which, on average, obtain better results.

Marxists observe that the social class of many ethnic minorities is low. For example, Trevor Jones's study in the Labour Force Survey finds class makes a significant difference to educational attainment.

However, as is usual in this subject, there are plenty of theorists who seek to blame the disadvantaged group in some way or another, rather than the structure of society itself.

1		Some theorists, Arthur Jensen and Hans Eysenck in particular, maintain that blacks have genetically inherited lower levels of intelligence, but once environmental factors are considered there is no evidence for this.
2		Culture Deprivation Theory is the view that many of the factors required for high educational attainment are lacking in the culture of a particular group. Thus, for example, Afro-Carribean families have high proportion of single mothers. However, this theory is of course disputed. Ken Pryce found that in the Afro-Carribean community of Bristol “the majority of West Indian parents have great academic aspirations for their children.” Whilst some argue that West Indians fail to encourage their children to attain educationally, a study by Geoffrey Driver and Roger Ballard does not confirm this. Asian parents are found to encourage their children to work hard at school. Most researchers agree that West Indian parents are very concerned about their children's education and regularly attend parents' evenings.
3		Cultural Differences Theory argues that certain groups are disadvantaged by the difference between their culture and the culture of the school. For example, constant correction by teachers my reduce children's confidence and lower their motivation.
4		Some maintain that differences in the use of language contribute to the lower educational attainment of racial and ethnic minorities. However, such differences are not thought to be significant by the majority of sociologists.

The Swann Committee investigated intelligence and educational attainment and reported in 1985 that when social and economic factors are taken into account there are no significant differences in IQ scores of different ethnic groups.

The findings of the Swann Committee report: Education for All are:

1		Only 5% of West Indians passed an A level; on 1% went to university.
2		Once environmental factors were taken into account, differences in IQ between ethnic groups were insignificant. < td>
3		For the vast majority of ethnic students linguistic factors were of no significance.
4		There was insufficient evidence to support the claim that West Indian culture disadvantaged West Indian children educationally.
5		Socio-economic factors were very important in causing ethnic lower educational attainment.
6		Whilst only a small minority of teachers were consciously racist, there was a good deal of unintentional racism.

Institutional Racism

The other strongly favoured explanation is racism within the education system. This has been forcibly argued by Bernard Cohen who claims that black children are made to feel inferior in every way by:

1		being told their speech is inferior and unacceptable
2		by association of the words white = good; black = evil
3		by omission of any discussion and description of black culture within the curriculum
4		by racist attitudes expressed by children outside the classroom.

Cohen argues that as a result black children develop low self-esteem and an inferiority-complex. Support for Cohen's views comes from

1		A study by Elaine Brittan in which 510 teachers surveyed by post that found that 2/3rds thought that West Indian children had low ability and presented a discipline problem.
2		An ethnographic study in 1988-9 by Cecile Wright of four multiracial inner-city primary schools which found that despite ideological commitment to anti-racism there was considerable racial discrimination within the classroom. At nursery level Asian children were expected to be linguistically backward and Asian girls were ignored. Afro-Caribbean children were expected to pose discipline problems and were likely to be punished than white children for similar offences. Racism was prevalent among children and expressed outside the classroom.
3		A study by Martin Mac an Ghaill interviewed students from ethnic minorities within sixth form colleges and also confirmed a high level of racism. However, these sixth-form students were robust in their response, not allowing self-esteem or opportunities as they perceived them, to be lost and developing a variety of survival strategies.
4		Cecile Wright's Research which was conducted in 1988/89 and published in 1992. It was based on the observation of four inner city primary schools - teachers perceive and treat ethnic minority children differently. Asian children are expected to lack adequate English for full classroom participation, but they are expected to be well-disciplined. However, Afro-Carribean boys are expected to be poorly disciplined.
5		David Gillborn's Research (1990) supports Wright's findings but maintains that most teachers try to treat all students fairly. Afro-Carribean children are denied a “legitimate voice of complaint”. Both studies use an ethnographic approach - that is, are based on intensive first hand investigation.
6		Exclusion is one of the methods of social control used by schools. Internal exclusion means removal of the pupil from the classroom within the school, by, for example, putting him/her in the corridor. Informal exclusion refers to removal of the pupil from the school, by, for example, inviting parents to remove the child. Since truancy tables are now published, there is a tendency for schools to “solve” their truancy problem by permanently excluding the worse truants. Afro-Carribeans form 8.1% of all permanent exclusions, but 2% of the school population.

The interacting factors of social class and institutional racism are widely regarded as the cause of lower attainment among ethnic minorities.

However, not everyone agrees that the educational system is so extensively racist.

1		Martin Hammersley found that racist comments in the staffroom did not lead to racism in the classroom.
2		Research by Monica J. Taylor concludes that many teachers are sensitively aware of racism as an issue.
3		Maureen Stone's study of West Indian children found that there was no evidence that West Indian children had low self-esteem.