Post War Education in Britain

From the 1870 Education Act to the end of the Second World War

Prior to the 1870 Education Act church and charity schools provided basic education for some children from the lower classes, but not all were covered. The 1870 Education Act set up elementary schools for all children between 5 and 10. This did establish the idea of state intervention in education. The type of school a child attended depended on social class.

1902 Education Act made Local Authorities responsible for secondary education as well as primary education. The act encouraged the building of grammar schools.

1944 — 1979: The Socialist Era

The post war period is characterised by a swing to the “left” in political terms. The landslide victory of the Labour government in 1944 heralded a period during which socialist policies were pursued; industries were nationalised, the “welfare state” was created, and there was a redistribution of wealth.

Thus this period of British educational policy is characterised by a concern for equality of opportunity in relation particularly to class disadvantage and gender and race/ethnicity issues.

However, the “bastions” of class privilege were maintained. Although education lurched towards the idea of comprehensive education, rightly or wrongly the State was not even remotely able to abolish private education (and the public schools). Differences in educational opportunity persisted throughout the period.

The 1944 Butler Education Act required local authorities to organise education in three stages: primary, secondary and tertiary. The is called the tripartite system. At the 11+ exam, children were tested and sent to either a grammar school, a technical school or a secondary modern. In practice few technical schools were introduced, so there was effectively a bipartite system. The curriculum for the grammar schools was classics, mathematics, the sciences etc. Originally, children at secondary modern schools were given a basic education with little opportunity to take external examinations. In the 1960s CSEs were introduced.

The equality theme is represented by the obligation laid on LEAs (Local Education Authorities) to provide education for everyone. Most authorities adopted

A tripartite system, dividing secondary education into grammar, secondary-modern and technical schools.

1		A tripartite system, dividing secondary education into grammar, secondary-modern and technical schools.
2		The use of an eleven-plus examination to select pupils for these different secondary schools.

Therefore, the system that evolved was not egalitarian. The tripartite system clearly divided children into separate streams and closed off opportunities to those not selected for grammar school education. J.W.B Douglas's survey (1968) showed that 77% of upper middle class pupils gained good O level passes compared to 27% for lower working class pupils. Results of the 11-plus exam were kept secret and very few working class children obtained grammar school places. Eleven came to be thought to be too early to decide a child's future.

The idea of the comprehensive system is that there should be one type of secondary school for everyone. In 1965 the Labour government asked Local Authorities to organise education along comprehensive lines. The Labour government issued circular 10 inviting local authorities to introduce comprehensive education - that is, to abolish the tripartite system and the 11- plus. By 1970 1/3rd of children were educated comprehensively. The development of the comprehensive system thereafter slowed down.

In 1974 the Labour government required all Local Authorities to adopt comprehensive education. The 1976: Education Act - Compelled Local Authorities to draw up plans for comprehensive education. By May 1979 80% of the secondary school pupils attended comprehensives. It is thought that comprehensive schools led to better exam results. Also shown by a study conducted by the National Children's Bureau on 1000 children born in the same week in 1958 that bright children did just as well in comprehensive schools as in grammar schools. It was argued, however, that grammar schools creamed off many of the brightest children.

Naturally, there is the still debated question that as long as class exists there cannot be equality of opportunity in education. Many comprehensives tend to be single class and they tend to reinforce rather than breakdown class divisions. Within comprehensives there is a disproportionate number of middle class pupils in top streams and sets.

Thus, issues concerning the introduction of comprehensive education are

1		Did it remove inequalities of opportunities deriving from class? Studies by Heath (1972) in England and McPherson and Willis (1987) suggest not. Pupils drawn from the Salariat maintained a 40% gap in likelihood of passing an O level relative to working class pupils.
2		Did comprehensive education improve the education of children and specifically working-class children? The same studies suggest that if O level passes are the measure of success, standards in education rose for children generally and working-class pupils specifically.

Compensatory Education means a policy of positive discrimination - to spend more money and devote more resources to improve the educational opportunities of the poor. Compensatory education was introduced in the U.S. in 1965 by the Johnson administration under the Head Start programme. The 1967 the Plowden report advocated a similar policy in Britain and the Labour government initiated an Educational Priority Area programme to assist some group that were deemed to be socially disadvantaged. It is disputed whether compensatory education in America or the US has ever had any positive effect. Peter Townsend (a Marxist) criticises the policy as being merely cosmetic, since the real causes of disadvantage and poverty lie in the “unjust” social structure. Basil Bernstein criticises the policy for its implicit denigration of working class culture. However, A.H. Halsey continues to defend the notion of positive discrimination.

The period 1976 to 1979 represents a transition period in British education. There was a change in the central concern of Educational Policy away from egalitarianism towards a concern with the relationship between education and industry and also comparisons between the state and private sectors. The transition was signalled by Callaghan's 1976 Ruskin College speech.

1979 - 1997: The Conservative Era

The tide towards socialism was abated. An increasing sense of conflict in society, coupled to Britain's poor economic performance, heralded a backlash in social policy, and the Conservative government under Margaret Thatcher, elected in 1979, increasingly implemented policies of the “New Right”. Among their policies, they privatised previously nationalised industries, changed the tax system to make in less progressive and implemented a crack-down on union power

The Conservative government under Margaret Thatcher reversed the concern of the pervious era with comprehensive education. In 1979 they repealed the 1976 Education Act requiring LEAs to introduce comprehensive education. They also introduced an Assisted Places Scheme paying for state pupils to be educated at independent schools.

Their main legislation in education was the 1988 Education Reform Art. This act introduced:

1		Testing and attainment targets at 7, 11, 14 and 16
2		A National Curriculum making education in core subjects to 16 compulsory.
3		Giving parents right to choose the school the children went to within a given area. A policy of open enrolment compelled schools to recruit up to their maximum level.
4		Establishment of City Technology Colleges (CTCs) which would be sponsored by private industry.
5		Allowed school to opt out of local authority control and become grant maintained school.
6		Devolved management away from LEAs to schools, giving schools responsibility for managing budgets.
7		Introduced formula financing into schools - that is funds related directly to numbers enroled.
8		Established a Polynechnic and a University Funding Council with strong representation from commerce and industry.

These measures represent:

1		An emphasis on competition and choice, and a move away from egalitarianism.
2		A stripping of power away from LEAs which were centres of opposition to the Thatcherite “reforms”.
3		An emphasis on training and vocation and on the relation between industry and education.

Other reforms and changes during the period are also consistent with these trends:

1		A succession of initiatives and programmes for vocational education and training. These were strong reinforced by the increasing unemployment, especially among school-leavers: (a) 1983 onwards TVEI, the Technical and Vocational Education Initiative, was introduced. (b) 1985 onwards CPVE , the Certificate for Pre-Vocational Education, was introduced. (c) 1986 establishment of new diploma awarding body called the National Council for Vocational Qualification, which by 1990 had introduced 170 NVQs (National Vocational Qualifications). (d) Introduction from 1994 onwards of further vocational awards called GNVQs. In 1973 Training Commission replaced Manpower Services Commission. This was replaced in 1975 by the Job Creation Programme, also replaced in 1976 by the Work Experience Programme. This in turn was replaced in 1978 by the Youth Opportunities Programme; in 1983 by the Youth Training Scheme; in 1990s by the Training and Enterprise Councils.
2		Introduction of GCSEs (General Certificates of Secondary Education) replacing the two tier O level/CSE system with one certificate.
3		1993 Education Act compelled further education authorities to become independent and self-governing funded by the Further Education Funding Council. It also allowed polytechnics to become universities.

The effects of the 1988 Education Act may be analysed from research between 1991 and 1994 by Ball, Bowe & Gerwitz. This was a study of 15 schools in three neighbouring LEAs. The overall effect they argue is to have increased the advantages of middle class families in securing better education for their children.

1		Publication of league tables forces schools to be more interested in attracting academically able pupils & to target more resources to children who are likely to be successful in examinations.
2		Schools have been forced to spend more money on marketing & resources often diverted from Special Needs in order to do this.
3		Middle-class parents are more able to manipulate the system to their advantage - they have “cultural capital” - they know how to impress a headmaster, mount successful appeals, and make multiple applications.
4		Middle-class parents can use their money to gain other advantages: (a) pay for transport to more distant schools; (b) move to areas where there are successful schools; (c) afford extra coaching and childcare.

Regarding the National Curriculum, the attainment targets and test have not been fully implemented owing to the opposition of teaching unions. 1994 Dearing Report proposed greatly simplified testing procedures and reduced the core subjects to English, Mathematics and Science. The National Curriculum promoted increased bureaucracy and centralised power in the hands of the Secretary of State for Education. Private schools were exempted from the National Curriculum.

Independent Schools

Independent schools charge fees. There are 200 Public Schools and 2000 independent schools. They do not have to teach the National Curriculum.

In 1991/2 7% of pupils at independent schools. Of Major's 1990 first cabinet, 17 of 21 had been to Oxford or Cambridge, and 19 went to an independent school. Some argue that independent schools act as a mechanism whereby the rich & powerful maintain their privilege. Therefore, opponents would abolish it. Advocates regard it as a manifestation of a market economy.

1980 Education Act provided an assisted places scheme to sponsor academically gifted children and help them to attend independent schools. In 1990 34,000 pupils were assisted at a cost to the State of £50m. It is under the direction of the Secretary of State for Education. It effectively redistributes funds from the State to the private sector and assumes that the independent sector is better. It also redistributes educational attainment in favour of the private sector.

Grant Maintained Schools are ones that have opted out of local authority control and are financed directly by central government. In 1994 592 of 3773 state secondary schools were grant maintained.